Biomimicry
Biomimicry
or biomimetics is
the examination of nature, its models, systems, processes, and elements to
emulate or take inspiration from in order to solve human problems. The term biomimicry
and biomimetics come
from the Greek words bios, meaning life, and mimesis, meaning to imitate. Other
terms often used are bionics, bio-inspiration,
and biognosis.
Through
the course of 3.8 billion years, nature has gone through a process of trial and
error to refine the living organisms, processes, and materials on planet Earth.
The emerging field of biomimetics has given rises to new technologies created
from biologically inspired engineering in both the macro scale and nanoscale
levels.
Biomimetics
is not a new idea. Humans have been looking at nature for answers to both
complex and simples problems since our existence. Nature has solved many of
todays engineering problems such as hydrophobicity, wind resistance,
self-assembly, and harnessing solar energy through the evolutionary mechanics of
selective advantages.
History
One
of the early examples of biomimicry was
the study of birds to enable human flight. Although never successful in creating
a "flying machine", Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was a keen observer
of the anatomy and flight of birds, and made numerous notes and sketches on his
observations as well as sketches of various "flying machines".[1]
The Wright Brothers, who finally did succeed in creating and flying
the first airplane in 1903, also derived inspiration for their airplane from
observations of pigeons in flight.[2]
Otto
Schmitt, an American academic and inventor, coined the term biomimetics
to describe the transfer of ideas from biology to technology. The
term biomimetics only
entered the Websters Dictionary in 1974 and is defined as "the study of
the formation, structure, or function of biologically produced substances and
materials (as enzymes or silk) and biological mechanisms and processes (as
protein synthesis or photosynthesis) especially for the purpose of synthesizing
similar products by artificial mechanisms which mimic natural ones".
In
1960, the term bionics was
coined by psychiatrist and engineer Jack Steele to mean "the science of
systems which have some function copied from nature".[3]
Bionics entered the Webster dictionary in
1960 as "a science concerned with the application of data about the
functioning of biological systems to the solution of engineering
problems". The term bionic took
on a different connotation when Martin Caidin referenced Jack Steele and his
work in the novel "Cyborg" which later resulted in the 1974
television series "The Six Million Dollar Man" and its spin-offs. The
term bionic then became
associated with 'the use of electronically operated artificial body parts' and
'having ordinary human powers increased by or as if by the aid of such
devices'.[4] Because the term bionic
took on the implication of super natural strength, the scientific
community in English speaking countries shied away from using it in subsequent
years.[5]
The
term biomimicry appeared
as early as 1982.[6] The term biomimicry
was popularized by scientist and author Janine Benyus in her 1997
book Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature.
Biomimicry is defined in her book as
a "new science that studies nature's models and then imitates or takes
inspiration from these designs and processes to solve human problems".
Benyus suggests looking to Nature as a "Model, Measure, and Mentor"
and emphasizes sustainability as an objective of biomimicry.[7]
The
San Diego Zoo [8] started its biomimicry
programs in 2007, and recently commissioned an Economic Impact Study [9]
to determine the economic potential of biomimicry. The report was
titled Biomimicry: An Economic
Game
Changer [9] and estimated that
biomimicry would have a $300 billion annual impact on the US economy, plus add
an additional $50 billion in environmental remediation.
Nanobiomimicry
Biological
imitation of nano and macro scale structures and processes is called
nanobiomimicry. Nature provides a great variety of nano-sized materials that
offer as potential templates for the creation of new materials eg. bacteria, viruses,
diatoms, and biomolecules. Through the study of nanobiomimicry, key components
of nanodevices like nanowires, quantum dots, and nanotubes have been produced
in an efficient and simple manner when compared to more conventional
lithographic techniques. Many of these biologically derived structures are then
developed into applications for photovoltaics, sensors, filtration, insulation,
and medical uses. The field of nanobiomimetics is highly multidisciplinary, and
requires collaboration between biologists, engineers, physicists, material
scientists, nanotechnologists and other related fields. In the past century,
the growing field of nanotechnology has produced several novel materials and
enabled scientists to produce nanoscale biological replicas.
Fabrication
SEM
of rod shaped TMV particles .
Biomorphic
mineralization is a technique that produces materials with morphologies and
structures resembling those of natural living organisms by using bio-structures
as templates for mineralization.
Compared
to other methods of material production, biomorphic mineralization is facile,
environmentally benign and economic[10] Biomorphic
mineralization makes efficient use of natural and abundant materials such as
calcium, iron, carbon, phosphorus, and silicon with the capability of turning
biomass wastes into useful materials.
Templates
derived from biological nanoparticles such as DNA, viruses, bacteria, and
peptides can transform unordered inorganic nanoparticles into complex inorganic
nanostructures. Biologically derived nanostructures are typically fabricated
using either chemical or physical techniques. Typical chemical fabrication
techniques are plasma spraying, plasma immersion ion implantation &
deposition
(PIII&D),
sol–gel,
chemical vapor deposition (CVD), physical vapour deposition (PVD), cold
spraying, self-assembly, and so on, whereas in physical modification techniques
include laser etching, shot blasting, physical plating, and physical
evaporation and deposition etc. Methods of fabrication with high throughput,
minimal environmental damage, and low costs are highly sought after.
Biologically
Inspired Engineering
The
use of biomineralized structures is vast and derived from the abundance of
nature. From studying the nano-scale morphology of living organisms many
applications have been developed through multidisciplinary collaboration between
biologists, chemists, bioengineers, nanotechnologists, and material scientists.
Nanowires,
Nanotubes, and Quantum Dots
A
virus is a nonliving subatomic particle ranging from the size of 20 to 300 nm
capsules containing genetic material used to infect its host. The outer layer
of viruses have been designed to be remarkably robust and capable of withstanding
temperatures as high as 60 ̊C and stay stable
in a wide range of pH range of 2-10[10] (Tong-Xiang).
Viral capsids can use to create several nano device components such as
nanowires, nanotubes, and quantum dots. Tubular virus particles such as the
tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)can be used as templates to create nanofibers and nanotubes
since both the inner and outer layers of the virus are charged surfaces and can
induce nucleation of crystal growth. This was demonstrated by Dujardin et al.
though the production of Pt and Au nanotubes using TMV as a template[11].
Shenton Douglas, a researcher from Montana State University, demonstrated the
mineralized virus particles could withstand various pH values by mineralizing
the viruses with different materials suc- silicon, PbS, and CdS and could
therefore serve as a useful carriers of material[12].
A spherical plant virus called cowpea chloric mottle virus (CCMV) has
interesting expanding properties when exposed to environments of pH higher than
6.5. Above this ph, 60 independent pores with diameters about 2nm begin to
exchange substance with the environment. The structural transition of the viral
capsid can be utilized in Biomorphic mineralization for selective uptake and deposition
of minerals by controlling the solution pH. Applications include using the
viral cage to produce uniformly shaped and sized quantum dot semiconductor
nanoparticles through a series of pH washes. This is an alternative to the
apoferritin cage technique currently used to synthesize uniform CdSe
nanoparticles[13]. Such materials could
also be used for targeted drug delivery since particles release contents upon
exposure to certain pH.
Display
Technology
Vibrant
blue color of Morpho butterfly due to structural
color.
Morpho
butterfly wings contain microstructures that create its coloring effect through
structural color rather than pigmentation. Incident light waves are reflected
at specific wavelengths to create vibrant colors due to multilayer
interference, diffraction, thin film interference, and scattering properties.
The scales of the butterflies consist of microstructures like ridges,
cross-ribs, ridge-lamellae, and microribs
that
have been shown to be responsible for coloration. The structural color has been
simply explained as the interference due to alternating layers of cuticle and
air using a model of multilayer interference. The same principles behind the
coloration of soap bubbles apply to butterfly wings. The color of butterfly
wings is due to the multiple instances of constructive interference from this
structure. The photonic microstructure of the butterfly wings can be replicated
through biomorphic mineralization to yield similar properties. The photonic
microstructures can be replicated using metal oxides or metal alkoxides such as
TiSO4, ZrO2, and Al2O3. An alternative method of vapor-phase oxidation of SiH4
on the template surface was found to preserve delicate structural features of
the microstructure[14] Now, companies like
Qualcomm are specializing in creating color displays with low power consumption
based on these principles. Other organisms with similar iridescence properties
include mother of pearl seashells, fish, and peafowl.
Additional
Examples
Velcro
was inspired by the tiny hooks found on the surface of burs. Researchers,
for example, studied the termite's ability to maintain virtually constant
temperature and humidity in their termite mounds in Africa despite outside
temperatures that vary from 1.5 °C to 40 °C (35 °F to 104 °F). Researchers
initially scanned a termite mound and created 3-D images of the mound
structure, which revealed construction that can influence human building
design. The Eastgate Centre, a mid-rise office complex in Harare, Zimbabwe,
(highlighted in this Biomimicry Institute case-study [15])
stays cool without air conditioning and uses only 10% of the energy of a
conventional building its size. Modeling echolocation in bats in darkness has
led to a cane for the visually impaired. Research at the University of Leeds,
in the United Kingdom, led to the UltraCane, a product formerly manufactured,
marketed and sold by Sound Foresight Ltd. Janine Benyus refers in her books to
spiders that create web silk as strong as the Kevlar used in bulletproof vests.
Engineers could use such a material—if it had a long enough rate of decay—for parachute lines,
suspension bridge cables, artificial ligaments for medicine, and many other
purposes.[7] Other research has proposed adhesive glue from
mussels, solar cells made like leaves, fabric that emulates shark skin,
harvesting water from fog like a beetle, and more. Nature’s 100 Best is a
compilation of the top hundred different innovations of animals, plants, and
other organisms that have been researched and studied by the Biomimicry
Institute. A display technology based on the reflective properties of certain
morpho butterflies was commercialized by Qualcomm in 2007. The technology uses
Interferometric Modulation to reflect light so only the desired color is visible
to the eye in each individual pixel of the display. Biomimicry may also provide
design methodologies and techniques to optimize engineering products and
systems. An example is the re-derivation of Murray's law, which in conventional
form determined the optimum diameter of blood vessels, to provide simple
equations for the pipe or tube diameter which gives a minimum mass engineering system.[16]
A
novel engineering application of biomimetics is in the field of structural
engineering. Recently, researchers from Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
(EPFL) have been incorporating biomimetic characteristics in an adaptive deployable
tensegrity bridge . The bridge can carry out self-diagnosis and self-repair.[17]
References
[1]
Romei, Francesca (2008). Leonardo Da Vinci.
The Oliver Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-1934545003.
[2]
Howard, Fred (1998). Wilbur and Orville: A Biography of the
Wright Brothers. Dober Publications. p. 33. ISBN
978-0486402970.
[3]
.
[4]
Compact Oxford English Dictionary.
2008. ISBN 978-0-19-953296-4.
[5]
Vincent, JFV (2009). "Biomimicry-a review". Proc.
I. Mech. E. 223: p919-939.
[6]
Merrill, Connie Lange (1982). Biomimicry of
the Dioxygen Active Site in the Copper Proteins Hemocyanin and Cytochrome
Oxidase. Rice
University.
[7]
Benyus, Janine (1997). Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature.
New York, NY, USA: William Morrow & Company, Inc..
ISBN
978-0688160999.
[8]
http:/ / www. sandiegozoo. org/ conservation/ biomimicry/
[9]
http:/ / www. sandiegozoo. org/ conservation/ biomimicry/ resources/
suggested_reading
[10]
Tong-Xiang, Suk-Kwun, Di Zhang. "Biomorphic Mineralization: From biology
to materials ." State Key Lab of Metal Matrix Composites .
Shanghai:
Shanghai Jiaotong University , n.d. 545-1000.
[11]
Dujardin E., Peet C. "Nano Lett." 2003. 3:413.
[12]
Shenton W. Douglas, Young M. "Adv. Materials." 1999. 11:253.
[13]
Ischiro Yamashita, Junko Hayashi, Mashahiko Hara. "Bio-template Synthesis
of Uniform CdSe Nanoparticles Using Cage-shaped Protein,
Apoferritin."
Chemistry Letters (2004). Volume: 33, Issue: 9. 1158-1159.
[14]
Cook G., Timms PL, Goltner-Spickermann C. Angew. "Chem Int Ed." 2003.
42:557.
[15]
http:/ / biomimicryinstitute. org/ case-studies/ case-studies/
termite-inspired-air-conditioning. html
[16]
Williams, Hugo R.; Trask, Richard S., Weaver, Paul M. and Bond, Ian P. (2008).
"Minimum mass vascular networks in multifunctional
materials"
(http:/ / rsif. royalsocietypublishing. org/ content/ 5/ 18/ 55. full). Journal
of the Royal Society Interface 5 (18):
55–65.
doi:10.1098/rsif.2007.1022.
PMC 2605499. PMID 17426011. .
[17]
Korkmaz, Sinan; Bel Hadj Ali, Nizar, Smith, Ian F.C. (2011). "Determining
Control Strategies for Damage Tolerance of an Active
Tensegrity
Structure" (http:/ / infoscience. epfl. ch/ record/ 164609/ files/ Korkmaz
et al, Determining Control Strategies for Damage
Tolerance
of an Active Tensegrity Structure, Engineering Structures (2011)_2. pdf). Engineering
Structures 33 (6): 1930–1939. doi:http:/ / dx.
doi.
org/ 10. 1016/ j. engstruct. 2011. 02. 031. .
Videos
•
Michael Pawlyn: Using nature's genius in architecture (http:/ / www. ted. com/
talks/
michael_pawlyn_using_nature_s_genius_in_architecture.
html) from TED 2010
•
Janine Benyus: Biomimicry in Action (http:/ / www. ted. com/ talks/
janine_benyus_biomimicry_in_action. html)
from
TED 2009
•
Janine Benyus: 12 sustainable design ideas from nature (http:/ / www. ted. com/
index. php/ talks/ view/ id/ 18)
from
TED 2005
•
Robert Full shows how human engineers can learn from animals' tricks (http:/ /
www. ted. com/ talks/
robert_full_on_engineering_and_evolution.
html) from TED 2002
•
Sex, Velcro and Biomimicry with Janine Benyus (http:/ / www. scribemedia. org/
2008/ 10/ 22/
float-like-a-butterfly-with-janine-benyus)
•
The Fast Draw: Biomimicry (http:/ / www. eveningnews. com/ blogs/ 2009/ 11/ 08/
fastdraw/ entry5577007.
shtml)
from CBS News
External
links
•
Biomimicry Institute (http:/ / www. biomimicryinstitute. org/ ) website
•
Termite Mounds Inspire Zimbabwe Office Complex (http:/ / www. gdrc. org/ uem/
anthill. html)
•
Biomimetic Architecture - Biomimicry applied to building and construction
(http:/ / www.
biomimetic-architecture.
com)
•
Ask Nature - the Biomimicry Design Portal: biomimetics, architecture, biology,
innovation inspired by nature,
industrial
design (http:/ / www. asknature. org/ )
Further
reading
•
Thompson, D W., On Growth and Form. Dover 1992 reprint of 1942 2nd ed. (1st
ed., 1917).
•
Vogel, S., Cats' Paws and Catapults: Mechanical Worlds of Nature and People.
Norton & co. 2000.
•
Benyus, J. M. (2001). Along Came a Spider. Sierra, 86(4), 46-47.
•
Hargroves, K. D. & Smith, M. H. (2006). Innovation inspired by nature
Biomimicry. Ecos, (129), 27-28.
•
Pyper, W. (2006). Emulating nature: The rise of industrial ecology. Ecos,
(129), 22-26.
•
Smith, J. (2007). It’s
only natural. The Ecologist, 37(8), 52-55.
•
Passino, Kevin M. (2004). Biomimicry for Optimization, Control, and Automation.
Springer
•
Rinaldi, Andrea (2007). "Naturally better. Science and technology are
looking to nature's successful designs for
inspiration".
European Molecular Biology Organization 8
(11): 995–999.
doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7401107.
PMC
2247388. PMID 17972898.
